To what extent has early modernist and American influences shaped Canberra
as the capital city we see today?
The 20th century oversaw many drastic changes as
well as new inventions and technologies which would eventuate as pivotal tools
and affluences in many western cultures. Along with these new elements came
along a new page in urban and town planning. It was a century filled with
change and a hungry desire for new directions and approach. It was during this
period however where Australia witnessed a new birth of a city, a new capital
in the name of Canberra. Canberra steadfastly evolved over a period of 100
years which oversaw new changes and philosophies in the approach of planning,
with the likes of Le Corbusier leading the modernist charge, as well as rapidly
growing American ‘Empire’ to which its cultural influences would spill across
the Pacific. These influences would allow neighbourhood units to thrive, long
transit freeways to connect place to place, employment to become a great
possibility as well as the administrative centres which would house the
Commonwealth government of Australia. Through this essay we will be assessing
the modernist and American influences through plans, events, people as well as
the competition which started it all.
There is no one definition of urban planning, but can be
defined as a technical and political
process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment,
including transportation networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development
of settlements and communities. It concerns itself with research and analysis,
strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy
recommendations, implementation and management. (Taylor, 2007) Urban planning
has been evident since the 5th century mainly in the Egyptian civilisations,
but recent archaeological digs are showing planning in most civilisations with
buildings and sewage systems being efficiently placed in a settlement. Planning
In early Australia was very minimal with most cities being placed on the east
coast for trade purposes like most cities. Much like America and early Britain,
the lack of strict development regulations saw dense urban neighbourhoods
quickly sprawl out of hand eventually turning to slums. (Stout, 1998) . This was evident in
early Sydney (figure 1) and Melbourne, although this type of early planning was
basic, usually only about the placement of infrastructure with no population
growth, economics or environmental studies. Planning today has moved from just
placement to a range of areas to a range of areas outlined in the definition
above such as design and consultation.
Figure 1. Sydney Harbour Bridge with HMAS Canberra in foreground
taken from Farm Cove, 19 March 1932.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/national_library_of_australia_commons/6174055380/
Between 1901-1930 Canberra offers the best example of ideas
and events associated with the garden city movement. In the initial design and
location of Canberra as the capital several criteria had to be followed, the
most significant includes 100miles from Sydney and agricultural background.
This shows that a garden city influence was evident from the beginning.
The beginning of the 20th century was the
beginning of ‘city beautiful’ approach to town planning in Australia. (Freestone,
1986) .
This introduced the British Garden City movement developed in the early 20th
century by Ebenezer Howard known
for his publication ‘Garden Cities of Tomorrow’ (1898). His strong
dedication and advocacy to the Garden City model movement largely influenced
the design of Canberra. During this time the garden city was accepted by most
with George Taylor explaining in 1914 ‘We
can build it as a model city and it’s sweetness will spread; for a garden city is
a hundred times more useful, because of the inspiration it creates’ (Taylor, 1914)
Griffin’s design was mostly geometrical but took into account the topography of the site as well. This being an aspect of the garden city in his original plans, also including his tree lined streets and use of parks and gardens.
Figure 2. Aerial View of Manuka Shops c1970s (Griffith, ACT).
http://www.flickr.com/photos/archivesact/6284669063/in/set-72157612716285327
http://www.flickr.com/photos/archivesact/6284669063/in/set-72157612716285327
The garden city idea later created satellite towns
surrounded by green belts. This saw the city and its suburbs being separated by
these green belts (open land), the original idea of it being to prevent the
possibility of the city becoming congested.
The early planning of Canberra illustrates many aspects of the garden city outside of Australia including aspects of Washington D.C. Although Canberra was not initially designed as a garden city the geometrical contours and care for topography of Griffin’s plan and the Garden City advocacy from Howard saw the movement largely influence the way Canberra has been planned.
The early planning of Canberra illustrates many aspects of the garden city outside of Australia including aspects of Washington D.C. Although Canberra was not initially designed as a garden city the geometrical contours and care for topography of Griffin’s plan and the Garden City advocacy from Howard saw the movement largely influence the way Canberra has been planned.
White immigration started as early as 1827 with blocks of
land being used for farming and trade purposes. Later in 1901 the federation of
states created the commonwealth of Australia, creating links to Britain, Which
saw us join them in WW1 and the idea of Canberra as the Capital city. This saw
many British immigrate to Australia due to freedom and work opportunities. Also
during this time increased European migration was evident, this was because of the
white Australia policy only allowed ‘similar skinned’ people into Australia. Skilled
workers were also needed for the design and creation of Canberra and other
major cities, attracting everyone from engineers, surveyors and architects all
the way to labourers and farmers to Australia to start a new life. This
diversity influenced Canberra’s future planning and the way Canberra functioned
into the future.
Major immigration Australia began during WWII, during the abolishment of the white Australia policy, further diversifying and growing Australia and its need for planning.
Major immigration Australia began during WWII, during the abolishment of the white Australia policy, further diversifying and growing Australia and its need for planning.
Figure 3. Griffin’s
Plan against Canberra in 2007.
http://www.cityofsound.com/blog/2007/04/bestlaid_plans_.html
Modernist
Planning - Alex Troy Elsworth Adkins
Modernist planning is a relatively recent move in planning
theory. Modernist planning theory began around the 1890’s in America (USA) when
people started moving from rural and regional areas to urban areas and large
cities. This shift from rural to urban areas saw populations of cities boom;
between the 1860’s and 1910’s New York’s population went from 470,000 to 5 million
people, Philadelphia’s population tripled to 1.5million and Chicago’s
population went from 112,000 to 2.1million in the same time frame. This
obviously put a lot of stress on infrastructure and planning. Modernist
planning theory was put forward to solve these problems, a fundamental part of
modernist planning is buildings and being able to build larger and taller
buildings to house everything from people to business, (LeGates & Stout, 1998) .This
began with the birth of the skyscraper which happened in Chicago in 1885 with
the world insurance building but since then skyscraper have grown to become
taller and cover the landscape of large cities to create their identity, (History, 2013) .
The skyscraper allowed modernist planning to house the large
populations of cities. A large part of modernist planning is also transport and
the motor car, with the automobile becoming more popular and affordable more
and more people owned it, (Benevolo, 2013) .
Modernist planning set out to try and make commuting as easy as possible. The
motorway and freeway were built, more roads and bigger roads were built
basically in modernist planning theory getting from A-B should be as easy as
possible so massive roads were built, (LeGates & Stout, 1998) .
Then physical and psychological problems started to emerge from environmental
degradation, pollution, no areas of recreation or green spaces. People who
could started moving out of the cities in to suburbia and then commuting in
creating sprawl, more pollution and more need for roads, (Richard T LeGates, 2013) .
These were issues which planners had to address and Ebenezer Howard’s garden
city movement directly addressed but this also caused a shift in modernist
planning. Modernist planning no longer just looked at building taller and
making so called ‘megacities’ modernist planning shifted to try and become a
sustainable form of planning theory. Modernist planning shifted its focus to
the community and open spaces were included for recreation, 4-12 story
developments, with shops and cafés at the base, offices close by and everything
within walking distances; New urbanism, (LeGates & Stout, 1998) .
New urbanism Kingston
foreshore Development
Canberra is a modernist city; it displays all aspects of
modernism. Modernism didn’t really start in Australia to around the 1910’s when
people relocated from the ‘bush’ to the cities, Canberra is a planned city and
it came about in 1913 when modernist planning theory was really taking hold in
Australia due to most of Australia’s planning being influenced by the US.
Canberra began with a quick influx of people mainly public servants to build
this capital with exciting plans put forward by Burley Griffin. What was not
foreseen by the government or Canberra was the First world War and Second World
War along with the depression had crippled Australia and strangled and
enthusiasm for Canberra. Canberra’s future was uncertain but the National
capital planning and development committee (NCPDC) wouldn’t let Canberra fail
the lake was built, other government departments were moved to Canberra and
built around Parkes and Barton. Civic centre was developed with shops and
business by the NCPDC and they looked to the federal government for Canberra to
have its own University and ANU was established in Acton in 1948, (Reid, 2002) .
Canberra from
the 1940’s to plans for Canberra now
Canberra’s architecture then changed its landscape taking a
much more modernist planning view from the 1950’s onwards building many more
apartments and housing more people also new parliament house and other key
landmarks like the high court, national gallery and national museum, (Gordon, 2006) .while
this encouraged people to come to Canberra and with apartments and taller
building there was more room to house them, the people who came to the ‘bush
capital’ to live wanted the bush life style so Belconnen, Woden, Tuggeranong
areas were created to house people and with Canberra’s population reaching over
100,000 people and every household owning a car Canberra’s road system become
front and centre. The national capital development commission (NCDC) came up
with a solution the ‘Y plan’ this was based on the modernist planning theory of
getting people from A-B as quick as possible. The plan was developing Canberra
as a Y with Belconnen and Gungahlin as the top two point’s central Canberra
around Civic and parliament in the middle and Woden to Tuggeranong at the base, (Reid, 2002) .
The plan is based on sprawl and requires people to spend a
lot of time in a vehicle and polluting a lot. With a shift for Canberra to have
a viable public transport system and double in size over the next 50years
sprawl isn’t seen as a viable option and new modernism is seen as the way to go
for Canberra planning with developments like Kingston foreshore, city to the
lake, south quay and more high-rise developments varying from 4-28stories with
Belconnen and Woden planned to have the tallest building in Canberra in the
coming years infill modernist planning a new urbanism styled planning is the
future of Canberra’s planning, (ACT Government, 2013) .
Americanization
of Australian Planning – Joseph Sutton
Modernism has been a part of an Americanisation of
planning that has influenced Australian cities. Canberra was designed during
the early phases of urban planning models and Walter Burley Griffin’s plan was
the start of American planning ideas being introduced to Canberra.
Griffin’s plan was influenced by the L’Enfant Plan that
was used to design Washington DC. Both Canberra and Washington have been planned
with major landmarks being on a certain angle and distance away from each
other. The areas surrounding the centre of the city are noted for having low
density buildings and many parks situated near a lake. The street layout is
also arranged with hexagonal and triangular angles spiralling off each other,
these main roads being major tree lined avenues lining up with the city’s
landscape and topography with a grid layout of roads filling in between. The
angles and shapes that the major landmarks of both cities have been designed on
make for good scenery for residents and visitors. Griffin also took inspiration
from the Burnham Plan which occurred in his home city of Chicago in 1909 which
was based on having the city closely situated to lake. This concept is based on
the City Beautiful movement and the ideas of the Garden City. The ideas are
based on having a capital city that is aligned perfectly to make for a healthy
city with beautiful environments and scenery. Having been designed by an
American, there would always be an influence from American planning ideas in
Canberra and that would develop as planning entered the Modernist period.
(aph.gov.au)
Walter Burley Griffin had a very strong relationship with
Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright was a very influential planner in America who had
strong designs for housing. His ideas were very architectural based which added
more American influence to Australia’s capital. Added American influence came
when the competition to design Parliament House was awarded to architect
Romaldo Giurgola who had spent most of his career in America. Adding a further
American influence to Canberra, this time it was the most important building in
the country. (griffinsociety.org)
The relationship between America and Australia was at its
strongest around the 50’s and it was then that Canberra begun to fully develop
into the city it is today. At the time American planning theories were
introduced to Canberra. Heavy use of the car lead to highways being built in
America and being introduced to Australia, they were used to connect the new
town centres of Woden and Belconnen to the centre of Canberra and the city has
continued to expand. This has altered the design of central Canberra with
Parkes Way becoming a major road taking traffic away from Constitution Avenue,
one of the main roads in Griffin’s plan. The major use of highways however has
made Canberra’s heavy use of the use of car a problem with very little public
transport causing congestion on roads. The first shopping mall was introduced
to Australia during the 1950’s. They were a sign of American consumerism and
were the centre part of Woden and Belconnen. The Shopping mall helped shape the
way in which Civic works now, away from the original plan of having the major
shopping complexes situated around the Sydney and Melbourne Buildings.
(Freestone, 2004) (Legates Stout 1998)
The neighbourhood unit is an American planning theory
that is very evident and noticeable and the majority of Canberra suburbs.
Designed by Clarence Perry, the neighbourhood unit was introduced to Canberra
during the 40’s and was a very popular model with Canberra planners. The idea
was that the school and local shops are located in the centre of the suburb.
The residential houses are located around the major complexes in the suburb.
The main idea behind this is that everyone can find their daily needs within
their own neighbourhood. The schools and shops are often surrounded by green
spaces and parks adding to the Canberra theme of the garden city. This a major influence
from America that is seen in all town centres and is the most influential
American planning theory to have an impact on America. It serves as a low
density version of New Urbanism which comes from the ideas of Modernism.
(Freestone 2010)
All of these models and ideas came to Canberra during and
part of the Modernist movement in urban planning. The design of Canberra today
has been influenced by American ideas during the Modernist period and shapes
the city that we now know today.
Canberra as a ‘planned’
city -
Boutros Hanna
Canberra is one of the very few cities around the world to be labelled a
‘planned’ city (others which include Washington and Brasilia). Its planning
process since the founding of the nation’s capital has never gone unnoticed.
Its finely-implemented neighbourhood units (inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright),
its well-coordinated freeways which connect all parts of Canberra, and its
approach to the Garden City concept all makes Canberra unique among the rest of
the other major cities in Australia. Canberra’s story of how it came to being
was indeed that of blood, sweat and toil.
Australia had just become a nation in 1901 however a new nation needs a
new capital city. Sydney and Melbourne fought intensely for the nations
bragging rights to host the nation’s capital. However, a compromise was
ultimately reached and recorded in section 125 of the Australian Constitution
that Melbourne would temporarily host the nation’s capital until a new location
(needed to at least 100 miles from Sydney) was discovered and built (Reid, 2002) . Charles Scrivener,
the surveyor responsible for an appropriate sight, had preference a
horseshoe-shaped territory which needed to include a large water catchment.
Canberra was ultimately chosen which then allowed competitors to begin work on
their drafts to design the new capital city. The competition was announced in
April 1911 and many competitors worldwide participated, not to a surprise that
the majority of those entrants were from the United States. One entrant,
Chicago-based Landscape Architect Walter Burley Griffin, would submit a draft
heavily inspired by Washington DC’s planned elements and outlines (Griffin, 2008) . Burley’s design of
asymmetric elements were designated to accommodate public buildings. Griffin,
in his writings says that “The prime object of the Capital City is not an
intensive commerce of the throng but the housing of various specialized
deliberative and educative activities demanding rather the quiet zones”. His
winning design was an arrangement of axes which would place education in one
zonal are opposite a variety of headquarters. The Executive, judiciary and
legislative components would feature as the predominant elements of the
proposal. Garden frontages were initially formed through these coordinated axes
so that they did not primarily serve as thoroughfares for communication (Griffin, 2008) . Another element of
Griffins design proposal were the protection of surrounding hills. This ensured
the pristine landscape of Canberra was well preserved (Reid, 2002) .
There were no doubts about America’s influence on Canberra as a ‘planned
city’. The freeways, housing, neighbourhood units as well as the axis that form
the political circles of Canberra. Bear in mind that Canberra was built from a
raw site as a result of a compromise – just like Washington. Griffin compares
Washington’s geographical location to Canberra’s, asserting “Washington,
located politically near the earliest settles coast of a continental area
equivalent to Australia, was to represent the civic ideal of an autonomous
nationality” (Griffin, 2008) . Griffin had apparently worked with the
famous Frank Lloyd Wright for a number of years leading up to the competition.
It was his time at Wrights studio where he gained most of his influence for
designing Canberra as the future capital of Australia. Organic architecture
seemed to be the lesson of thought from Lloyd Wright’s studio that invoked
Griffin’s future aspirations for Canberra. “Based on careful observation of
nature, building not only should appear to grow easily from their site, but
each part should conform to the patter of the whole of the design” (Griffin, 2008) .
Canberra’s planning during the course of the 20th century
oversaw the Federal Capital Commission (1925-1930) which its primary role was
to construct and administer Canberra. Their proposals included the 1925 Gazette
proposal which contrasted Griffins road plan as well a proposed government
group which was designed to build an administrative centre which was again
further entailing Griffins proposal. Canberra grew steadfastly during the
course of the 20th century however 1966 oversaw a new proposal which
further exacerbated America’s influence in Canberra alone. The National Capital
Development Commission invited American transport consultants to assist in updating
a transport plan which would accommodate a further 500,000 people. This plan
would ultimately envisage the future growth in Canberra’s suburbs. This plan
was called the Spatial Plan or simply the ‘Y’ Plan as proposal radiated from
the city centre (Overall, 1995) . Woden and Tuggeranong would form the
tail of this plan while the northern suburbs of Belconnen, Gungahlin and Sutton
would form the two branches which would ultimately form the ‘Y’ shape. This
plan was designed on the assumption that Canberra would remain a car-reliant
society where its citizens would use public transport to a minimal extent. This
plan provided a development of ‘satellite’ towns in which town would have a
major shopping centre, office blocks and entertainment facilities which would
serve as a ‘magnet’ in drawing people away from the city centre. The freeways
would serve as transit links which was aimed at attempting to avoid large
numbers of vehicles through local neighbourhoods. School ovals, community
facilities and churches were to be within walking distance from the home. These
elements of implementation within the 1967 Spatial Plan reverberate strongly
around local communities in the United States. Most neighbourhoods from
the1950’s had implemented these proposals which were first evident during the
post war era.
Overall, Canberra has been highly influenced by America alone. The
Modernist movement began in American and would become a dominant force in
planning throughout most of the 20th century. The movement
successfully implemented transport in cities and towns to accommodate its
citizens, especially the motor vehicle through the idea of the freeways. The
New Urbanism, as mentioned by Robert Freestone, is the most influential aspect
of the Modernist Movement in the United States as well as the neighbourhood
unit. Through these elements, Canberra was able to transform into a capital
which can be recognized with similarities to Washington D.C. Walter Burley
Griffin, who was inspired by the new American planning theories has
successfully managed to make Canberra an ever-evolving city with its
sustainable and adjustable elements. Canberra will continue to grow as a
capital city if the legacy of Walter Burley Griffin continues to live on
through our planning and ideas. It is important that we understand that what we
plan today in the nation’s capital may affect future generations yet unborn.
Peer Review: Our group consisted of Boutros
Hanna, Alex Adkins, Pat Williams and Joseph Sutton. We had collaborated
together on how the modernist movement and American influence played out in the
planning process of Canberra. We were lucky enough to meet with a man who has
overseen the expansion of Canberra throughout the decades, former chief planner
Geoff Campbell. Through our meeting with him on the 28th November,
2013, he was able to elaborate on the Spatial Plan of 1967, the Federal
Government and theNCDC’s role in Canberra’s planning and the neighbourhood
units which are evident around Canberra today. Alex Adkins did his research on the modernist
movement and their influences in Canberra, Pat Williams pursued the earlier
forms of planning which led to the coming of the modernist and American
influences. Joseph Sutton explained America’s strong influence on Canberra
during the many years of planning while Boutros assessed Canberra from within
including the design competition and the Y plan of 1967.
References
ACT Government, 2013. Territory Plan. [Online]
Available at: http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/ni/2008-27/current/default.asp
[Accessed 27 November 2013].
Available at: http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/ni/2008-27/current/default.asp
[Accessed 27 November 2013].
An Ideal City - The 1912 Competition to Design Canberra. 2013.
An
Ideal City - The 1912 Competition to Design Canberra. [ONLINE]
Available at: http://www.idealcity.org.au/. [Accessed 27 November 2013].
Benevolo, L., 2013. Origins of Modern Town Planning. [Online]
Available at: http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/origins-modern-town-planning
[Accessed 27 November 2013].
Available at: http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/origins-modern-town-planning
[Accessed 27 November 2013].
Capital City Conundrum: An Exploration of Canberra as
the Nation’s Capital, 2012, accessed from
http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/2011-2012/Canberra
(Accessed 26-11-13)
Freestone, R., 1986. Canberra as a Garden City
1901-1930. s.l.:s.n.
Freestone, 2004, The Americanisation of Australian
Planning, accessed from
http://learnonline.canberra.edu.au/pluginfile.php/786893/mod_resource/content/1/Freestone%2C%202004%2C%20The%20Americanisation%20of%20Australian%20Planning.pdf
(Accessed 26-11-13)
Gordon, D. L., 2006. Planning Twentieth Century Capital
Cities. Middlesex: Routledge. History, 2013. Home Insurance Building. [Online]
Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/home-insurance-building
[Accessed 27 November 2013].
Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/home-insurance-building
[Accessed 27 November 2013].
Griffins, D, 2008. The Writing of Walter Burley Griffin. 1st ed. Melbourne: Cambridge Press.
Legates Stout, 1998, Modernism and Early Planning,
accessed from http://learnonline.canberra.edu.au/pluginfile.php/786876/mod_resource/content/1/LeGates%20%20Stout%2C%201998%2C%20Modernism%20and%20Early%20Urban%20Planning.pdf
(Accessed 26-11-13)
Overall, J, 1995. Canberra: Yesterday, Today
& Tomorrow. 1st ed. Canberra: Cambridge Press.
Reid, P., 2002. Canberra Following Griffin. 1st ed.
Canberra(ACT): National Archives of Australia.
Urban Nation: Australia’s Planning Heritage, 2010,
accessed from
http://books.google.com.au/books?id=dUrqBbqbZfkC&pg=PA196&lpg=PA196&dq=neighbourhood+unit+canberra&source=bl&ots=PUShd6r-JV&sig=h-Ue5bAYPRH3mbxVa7uKFprrYXw[PH1] &hl=en&sa=X&ei=FymXUuivL82aiAf90oGgCA&ved=0CCoQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=neighbourhood%20unit%20canberra&f=false
Robert Freestone, p.196. (Accessed 28-11-13)
Walter Burley Griffin Society: Significance and
Influence
http://www.griffinsociety.org/Introducing_the_Griffins/significance.html#flw
(Accessed 28-11-13
No comments:
Post a Comment